A Historical Perspective of Walkability

 

What is Walkability

The concept of walkability in urban planning originates from the transportation literature and has been used widely within urban planning, transportation, and public health research (Sarjakoski, Santos, & Sarjakoski, 2016). In essence, walkability has to do with how conducive an area is to walking (Fitzsimons, Nelson, Leyden, Wickham, & Woods, 2010). Within the last fifteen years, walkability has been developed as a concept for urban design. It refers to how much the area can be considered pedestrian-friendly with respect to various community characteristics such as residential density, street connectivity, land use mix, and access to local destinations (Sarjakoski, Santos, & Sarjakoski, 2016). It is also evaluated by environmental characteristics such as the presence of sidewalks, green spaces, and street lights (Kawachi, Takao, & Subramanian, 2013, p. 135). A connected and accessible street pattern contributes to better walkability (Sarjakoski, Santos, & Sarjakoski, 2016). London, England chooses to identify walkability by five characteristics of what they call the five C’s, that is, being: Connected, Convivial, Conspicuous, Comfortable, and Convenient (Livingstone, 2004).  According to Miller 2015, New York is considered to be one of the most walkable cities in the world. Urban planners and designers try to use methods that can improve walkability, which will encourage pedestrians to want to walk and cycle more.

 A Historical Perspective of Walkability

There was nothing self-evident in the proposition that streets are for cars (Zavestoski & Agyeman, 2014, p. 21). The social spaces through which we live do not only consist of physical things but also of those less tangible spaces we construct out of social interaction (Read, 2002, p. 49).

Throughout history, walkability has mainly been affected by safety and security in urban spaces (Abdulla et al., 2017). Numerous studies have established that there is a definite association between walkability and safety and security, making it a central concern before building structures (Abdulla et al., 2017). This aspect is majorly influenced by the fact that cities, for instance, are highly diverse due to ethnicity, race, religion, and immigration differences. When valuing public spaces, safety is considered the most important factor, because the safety strongly influences the decision by individuals to use the area. Frank et al (2009) also argue that there is existing evidence that links the development of neighborhoods and physical activity.

Initially, cities did not have a problem of walkability as building structures were sparse, and populations were not as much as they are today. However, with the urban sprawl, much farmland was consumed for structures, and people are growing economically, leaving cities with minimal spaces. Further, modernization has contributed to the minimizing of walkability as modes of transport have significantly moved from walking and riding to driving and the use of public vehicles, which transport people close to their residential places or areas of work.

The evolution of walkability in China is different from that in America (Frank et al., 2009). However, its objectives are almost similar. In the People's Republic of China, for instance, with considerations of major cities, one common aspect is that between 1990 and 2010, cities expanded their urban land to allow for more space for developing sustainable structures with walkability having been considered. From 2000 to 2010, urban land was expanded extensively for the same reasons (Fan et al., 2017). Inner cities are highest in the walkability index's average, highly influenced by government policies at both levels of the government. Modern structures through systems have to be developed with spaces for walking or doing exercises that promote economic development, sustainability, and useful public health. 

Walkability has evolved through the 19^th century and has mainly been pushed as a necessity due to technological and economic advancements where people can afford automobiles, limiting their physical activities.

Zavestoski & Agyeman (2014) remind us that historically before automobiles were invented, streets were unmarked, and there was no governance of traffic or codes to regulate it. Neither laws nor social norms prevented pedestrians from roaming the streets at will and crossing them wherever they wished (Zavestoski & Agyeman, 2014, p. 21). Designing the built environment requires close attention to the needs of people – not just in vehicles, but also as pedestrians (LaGro Jr., 2013). Streets should be seen not as fixed but as continually adapting and evolving physical, social, and symbolic spaces (Zavestoski & Agyeman, 2014, pp. 12-13). The more walkable a city is, the higher the likelihood that it will thrive (Miller, 2015, p. 205). As such, in addition to urban designers, other stakeholders of walkability include architects, transport planners, academics, government decision-makers, social ecologists, and public health professionals (Fitzsimons, Nelson, Leyden, Wickham, & Woods, 2010).